Learning And Solving The Animal Kingdom - 1341 Words

Teddy Miqui Psych 243 Learning and Problem Solving in the Animal Kingdom In the animal kingdom certain groups of animals have an ability to learn and use their environment around them to overcome certain obstacles. It is very rare to find animals that have the cognitive ability to solve these types of problems. However, certain animals have the ability to use tools to solve certain issues with their environment. While other animals have the ability to solve complex puzzles to get themselves out of unknown situations. When an animal has the ability to understand their surroundings and use their intellect to solve certain issues they are considered quite intelligent, but as of now there are only a certain select group of animals that have†¦show more content†¦Whenever one animal teacher another they are using a learning method called social learning. This technique is not unique to animal kingdom, even in our society we have people teaching other skills or piece of information that we deem useful for our purposes. However animals find certain thin gs more than humans such as the ability to acquire food and water. In groups of Meer cats it was found that certain individuals were designated to teach the younger individuals how to property hunt scorpions without being stung. This is a direct example of social learning within the animal kingdom, in this study it was found that those individuals taught how to hunt were more likely to capture the scorpions without actually being stung compared to those who were just given the food from a young age (Thornton,, 2008). Social learning can also be seen in more advance species such as primates. As seen in Catherine Hobaiter article there many forms of social learning that can occur in species such as chimpanzees. It was found that within a group of chimps younger individuals learned how to use moss sponging from older individual within their tribe (Hobaiter, 2014). This allowed them to absorb water and drink the contents from the sponge. This technique was useful for the chimps to learn because this allowed them to gather and drink water reliably in the wild. This example also shows us how

Gay Child Rearing Essay - 1656 Words

The sexuality and development of children with gay parents must be most affected by the rearing of the gay parents. Does having gay parents affect a child’s mental health and growth? Can education and socialization be decreased with the presence of gay parents? How could it be possible that children are not affected by having two parents of the same sex? Doesn’t this cause some gender confusion for the child? How can a child develop properly without the experience of both a male and female role model? Will the child be at risk for molestation of a homosexual parent? A female teaches the child how to love, be caring, and offers a maternal nurturing that only a mother can give while a male teaches a child to be strong, disciplined, and†¦show more content†¦It has been shown through research that children raised by homosexual parents are more nurturing, recognize emotional situations, and show less aggressive interactions. The way that parents communicate and interact with their children shows much more effect on development than the sexual preference of their parents, claims Perrin (2002). The question is raised as to whether a child needs a mother and father role model. Conservatives say ‘yes,’ but all of the research that they have acquired is based â€Å"fellow conservative groups.† (Neff 2004). â€Å"Nearly 50 studies show there are no significant developmental differences between the children of gay parents and the children of straight parents.† (Neff 2004). In fact, gay parenting is supported by many psychological organizations like the National Association of Social Workers and the American Psychological Association. Children tend not to be confused by their gender role. In a study, research showed that 20 of 21 children correctly identified a favorite toy consistent with their gender. (Patterson, 1992). There is no more male hormone in a lesbian than in a heterosexual female. This was proven by a study done with 12 heterosexually parented children and 12 homosexually parented children. The study showed that the children â€Å"di d not differ in masculinity or androgyny.†Show MoreRelatedCommentary of Adam Liptak ´s Article Regarding Gay Marriage and Child Rearing716 Words   |  3 PagesAdam Liptak, a journalist for the New York Times, explained in Utah, in Opposing Gay Marriage, Find Three Arguments are Better than One why a heterosexual relationship is better for raising children in. The Utah law that would have allowed same sex couples to marry was recently shot down. Liptak goes on to explain why he agrees with the bill not being passed. The article states that this was important in â€Å"holding up and encouraging man-woman unions as the ‘preferred’ arrangement in which to raiseRead MoreGay Marriage: What Ever Happened To Equal Rights Essay example621 Words   |  3 Pagesfirst U.S president to declare his support for gay marriage. On May 9,2012 President Obama believed that same sex couples should have the opportunity for marriage. Obama repealed the Defense of Marriage Act whic h stopped defending the DOMA, the federal law that defines marriage as a man and a woman. I strongly encourage that gay marriage should be allowed because same-sex couples deserve to have access to the same benefits enjoyed by heterosexual couples, gay marriage would make it easier for same sexRead MoreArgumentatice Essay Gender Roles1268 Words   |  6 Pagesthe sexes. This knowledge is learned socially, culturally, it is not innate. And these characteristics can vary when the environment one is raised in differs from the norm. Child rearing and cultural factors play a large role in how individuals act and see themselves. When expecting parents want to identify the sex of their child, occasionally the doctor will inform them to paint the nursery blue or pink rather than tell them the actual sex. More often than not they know which to expect, a boy orRead MoreSame Sex Marriage And Parenting938 Words   |  4 PagesSame-Sex Marriage and Parenting Gay and lesbian couples wish to get married for many of the equivalent reasons that heterosexual couples wish to for love, constant companionship, and to create a nuclear family environment. A survey of same-sex marriage and same-sex parenting reveals several challenges facing gay and lesbian couples, most noticeable being the stereotyping their lifestyles, parenting, and gay beliefs. In the United States, marriage egalitarianism has started to structure itself.Read MoreGay Marriage Should Be Legal1179 Words   |  5 PagesGAY MARRIAGES Some states such as Iowa legalized gay marriage through the action of judicial interpretation based on the state’s constitutional stipulations while other states such as Vermont legalized gay marriage through legislation initiatives. These cases demonstrate the government is the sole body that can dictate the validity of whatever is to be regarded as a marriage, and in this case gay marriage. The power to validate marriage is still observed among the private citizens, religious institutionsRead MoreGay Marriage Should Be Banned874 Words   |  4 PagesMany will probably disagree on the grounds that gay rights or same sex marriage should be banned or that it’s wrong under their religions. With that there are many factors that contradict against gay rights, such as religion, child adoption, and divorce just to name a few. Roger Severino, a graduate from Harvard Law School, and has a master in public policy claims the negative collusions that are against gay rights (924). Severino tells us that gay marriage conflicts with religious beliefs becauseRead MoreEssay on Same-Sex Parenting and Child Development1110 Words   |  5 Pagesestablished gay men and lesbians have been increasingly undertaking parenthood through donor insemination, surrogacy, or fostering and adoption (McCann, 2005). Thus, a new type of family formation in American society has been generated. Due to the formation of same-sex households, gay and lesbian parenting is no longer a concept. This type of parenting has become a reality which society as a whole is struggling to accept (McCann, 2005). In 2010, the U.S. Census Bureau counted gay marriages inRead MoreComparative Family Policies Same Sex Marriage1006 Words   |  5 PagesUnites States (2015) Uruguay (2013) Then, select one of these 21 countries and focus on the following questions in relation to the U.S. 1. Does this country grant gay and lesbian couples benefits (such as health, inheritance, and retirement benefits), if so, what type of benefits? (3 pts) Yes, in South Africa the Civil Union Act recognizes gay and lesbian couples the same legal benefits as opposite-sex couples. They are allowed to make decisions on behalf of other, they are granted the right to inheritanceRead MoreDecline of the Traditional American Family: Homosexual Parents1246 Words   |  5 PagesAmerican Family: Homosexual Parents The conception that lesbians and gay men may be parents is frequently perceived in today s society as impossible or immoral. Gay men and lesbians are often viewed as excluded from having children because sexual reproduction is related to men and women couples only. My approach to this uniquely controversial topic of gay parenting will be that of attempting to analyze the pro side. Gays and lesbians are human too and who is to say that they don t deserve equalRead MoreGay Marriage: Pros and Cons1152 Words   |  5 PagesMarriage Is Not Equal For All Gay Marriages Mikaela Acosta â€Æ' Gay marriage has been subject to taboo because our society has this conformed and learned version of marriage; marriage is only held between a man and a woman. Although this is more common today to hear of gay couples, in the first couple centuries in America this was almost unacceptable to general society. Beginning in 2001 was when gay marriage began to become much more widespread starting in Canada, Norway, Belgium, Argentina

Administration and New Public Management - 3752 Words

J. Basic. Appl. Sci. Res., 2(4)3915-3919, 2012  © 2012, TextRoad Publication ISSN 2090-4304 Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research www.textroad.com *Corresponding author: Hassan Danaeefard, Associate Professor, Public Administration, Tarbiat Modarres University, (TMU), Tehran, Iran. Email: hdanaee@modares.ac.ir The Streaks of New Public Management in Iranian Governmental Sector in the Frame of Privatization Policy Hassan Danaeefard1*, Seyed Mahdi Alvani2 and Mohammad Reza Noruzi3 1.Associate Professor, Public Administration, Tarbiat Modarres University, (TMU), Tehran, Iran 2.Professor, Public Administration, Allame Tabatabaee University, Tehran, Iran 3.EMBA, PhD candidate, Public Sector Policy Making, Islamic Azad University,†¦show more content†¦are some main matters of this strategy in public section. New Public Management Theory, Iran and Privatization In the idea of theorists [9], there is nothing as important as publicity of governmental organizations. The expression of publicity is an obvious symbol of public and private separation. We are going to investigate the dimensions of negative effect of modern governmental management on the publicity of administrational organizations. 3915 Danaeefard et al., 2012 1. New public management: Filling the gap between public and private One common assessment of public service democracy is the evaluation of unique or fundamental qualities which are supposed to be the differentiating symbol of public and private. The insertion of new public management into governmental organizations exterminatesthe border between them because market, norms and unique standards of public service such as citizenship, responsibility, equality, confronting and justice toward them which Islamicgovernments and developed countries like America, England, France and Canada are supporters of, are rambled as some norms of business, competition, productivity and benefit existed [9]. The researches in some countries such as England [10], United States [11], Belgium, Germany, the Netherland and Sweden [10] even in some of developing countries as Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, The Philippines and SouthShow MoreRelatedPublic Administration And The Public Sector837 Words   |  4 PagesOld Public Administration was created to answer the questions to many unanswered problems. President Woodrow Wilson said it was â€Å"harder to run a constitution than to frame it† because of the difficult administrative tasks had to deal with. Sure enough, he was not the only person who felt that way. President Wilson believed that in order to run an effective government, ideas from the private sector should be incorporated into the public sector. He even went as far as to give input on how the governmentRead MoreThe Classical Public Administrative Theory1158 Words   |  5 Pages CLASSICAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY Most twentieth century scholars in sociology and the science of administration consider the classical public administrative theory as the early form of organizational theory and accompanied by three main types of management: scientific, administration and bureaucracy. All of these management ideas are linked to different academics. `The scientific management was developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915); the AmericanRead MoreHow Corporate Greed Is Uniquely A Part Of A Public Administration970 Words   |  4 PagesThis weeks forum question is what brings you here and interests you. I became a public administration student after many careers in multiple fields of management. These included retail, healthcare and currently, technology. I am very interested in organizational structure and management. The field of public administration is all encompassing and goes hand in hand with organizational management studies. I do have an interest as well in local government. I grew up in a terrific, but non-politicalRead MoreDominant Theory Of Public Administration Essay1385 Words   |  6 Pagesexplain the dominant theory in public administration practice and elaborate on the major theoretical assumptions of the Old Public Administration. As stated in the question, the world has transformed through globalization, information technology, and devolution of authority since the latter part of the last century. The dominant theory in public administration has been replaced from the traditional rule-based, authority-driven processes of the Old Public Administration with market-based, competition-drivenRead MoreComparing Public and Private Administration690 Words   |  3 PagesPublic and Private Administration Public and Private Administration Public administration is a type of administration in which the rules, regulations and different governmental policies are implemented. In public administration, the decision-making is based on the government and the officials of the organizations where public administration is practiced are mostly non-elected (Simon, Smithburg, Thompson, pg 9-12). These unelected officials are sometimes considered as heads of the state, cityRead MoreThe Field Of Public Administration Essay1275 Words   |  6 PagesThe field of Public Administration is undoubtedly one of the most vast study fields there is. It is said that public administration is closely related to Management in terms of public management theories. After all Public Administration is the perfect management of people in a more vast public setting.According to Nigro and Nigro in their book Modern Public Administration, Public Administration is a co-operative group effort in a public setting which works in collaboration with the execu tive, legislatureRead MoreStrategic Management And Public Sector Essay982 Words   |  4 PagesStrategic Management has picked up a maintained conspicuousness in the administration of public sectors in the previous two decades or thereabouts. Public sectors are progressively being solicited to utilize it as part from their administration systems. It has turned into an appealing administration apparatus to reformers, and as according to Bovard (2009), contends for an association to be without a technique is to seem directionless and clumsy. It is not an embellishment to state that, the utilizationRead MoreEvolution Of Public Administration Approaches1695 Words   |  7 PagesEvolution of Public Administration Approaches The roots of public administration can be traced back to 400 B.C. when Plato developed the concept of democracy, but more recently, economist Fredric W. Taylor in early 1900s developed the need for budgets, cooperation between labor and management in order to become more effective (Gueguen, 2002). His concepts of scientific management, also known as Taylorism, promoted job optimization and simplification in order to increase productivity. These scientificRead MoreGood Governance And Public Sector Management1022 Words   |  5 Pagesespecially politically. Good Governance is linked to Public Sector Management and how it is developing. Public Sector Management has went through changes over the past decades: from Traditional Public Administration to New Public Management or in other words Governance and managerialism. Moving from traditional administration with emphasis on neutrality of the public, tenure, career and a structure of hierarchical authority. The New Public Management wi th emphasis on commercialization and privatizationRead More The Evolution of Public Administration in American Society Essay1392 Words   |  6 PagesPublic administration as a field of study and as a practice has continually evolved with American society. The United States has survived and thrived through major cultural shifts, varying degrees of economic climates, and both civil and world wars. Through out all these changes in our country, one thing has always remained the same, the fact that we are an ever evolving and always changing nation. Theories and forms of practice of public administration have also evolved parallel with the history

Christianity Is A Religion That Is Religion - 953 Words

Christianity is a religion that is based off of, and adheres to the religious teachings of Jesus Christ. This section will focus mainly on how the aspects of alcoholism, fornication, and modesty are addressed within Christianity. Alcohol consumption is permitted in Christianity and Christ has often been portrayed in the Bible grasping a glass of wine. The Bible even states that wine, which cheereth God and man† is that which does indeed â€Å"maketh glad the heart of man. However, the Bible states to those who drink excessively: â€Å"Woe to those who are heroes at drinking wine, and valiant men in mixing strong drink† This clearly signifies a key concept of way with which intoxicants such as alcohol or drugs are perceived. If these narcotics provide happiness for mankind, there is no problem with consuming them. However, if these narcotics impair the senses, then the use of such drugs is greatly looked down upon. It is frowned upon by God. Therefore, this specific vers e implies that it is not only excessive alcohol that is prohibited, but the use of any other substance that can cause a harmful effect for a human. This expands the definition of what was wine at the time to drugs in the modern world. Moving on, the issue of fornication in the Bible is greatly condemned. The Bible states that God encourages an individual to â€Å"Flee from sexual immorality.† An individual who commits adultery â€Å"will not inherit the kingdom of God.† Furthermore, in Christianity, women are encouraged toShow MoreRelatedChristianity, Religion, And Religion Essay1482 Words   |  6 PagesChristianity, one of the western religion which is accepted by more than 30% of the world population. Actually, I am not part of this religion: I am from Hindu religion, an eastern religion. In my religion, there are thousands of gods, but I don t even know the name of more than 50 gods. Unlike Hindu, in Christianity, there is only one God, Jesus Christ, who is the ce ntral figure in Christianity. Among the Christianity community, it is believed that God sends his son to the earth to free the peopleRead MoreChristianity, Religion, And Religion1785 Words   |  8 Pageshere I have only been exposed to one type of religion which is Christianity. I grew up going to a Catholic school, and I quickly learned that Jesus was the one true God. From this moment on I believed that Jesus was the only way to praise and worship God. Since I was brainwashed into this I was under the impression that we would be learning about all prehistoric religions that were all incorrect. However, I learned quickly that although these religions were prehistoric some of their rituals didRead MoreChristianity ( Religion ) On Christianity1349 Words   |  6 PagesCHRISTIANITY (RELIGION) Christianity essentially focuses on faith as it foundation. There are over one thousand religious establishments in the U.S. and Canada and that is just focusing on Christianity on its own. There are 19 major world religions which are sectioned into a total of 270 large religious groups and there is also many smaller ones. They all hold various and often differing beliefs concerning divinity, humanity and the rest of the universe. Many consider that their own faith is theRead MoreChristianity And Its Impact On Religion1744 Words   |  7 Pagesthough science always tries to prove that religion is based upon faulty beliefs, religion will always overcome science, faulty or not. In the modern world that we live in where unity is bigger than ever, we must look beyond our own religious views and study other traditions and philosophies. Specifically, I will be matching up my two favorite, Christianity and Buddhism. Buddhism  is centered upon the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha, whe reas Christianity is centered on the Life and Teachings of  JesusRead MoreReligion Is Not For Christianity And Islam1509 Words   |  7 PagesIt is a widely accepted fact that religion is not limited to Christianity and Islam. Instead, it also incorporates issues such as the fanaticism of expertise, worldly humanism, the consumer culture as well as the consecration to Thursday Night Rugby among other illustrations. Analysis of the historical definition of religion, it has been found that the five core features of religion are also met by politics. For this reason, it is hard to distinguish religion from a policy. As pointed out by theRead MoreChristianity And The Religion Of Islam1180 Words   |  5 PagesChristianity and the religion of islam have many differences. I believe it’s time for someone to go into depth of how Christianity and Islam are similar and different. One thing to remember is that all this is based on Historical discoveries, and my opinions are based on my research. So, without further ado, let’s get started. Take in mind that I have never read the, â€Å"Qur’an†, or the, â€Å"Holy Bible†. I will try my best to make everything factual. The descendant - Christianity: All christians believeRead MoreChristianity and The Lutheran Religion847 Words   |  3 PagesThe Lutheran religion was originally branched from Christianity, and is a massive Protestant denomination currently. Nearly 66 million people worldwide practice this religion (Lutheranism). Lutheran has a membership which exceeds any other Protestant denomination. Germany is the primary Lutheran country, as it was from the start (Martin Luther 1483-1546, BBC). This religion dates back to 1517, the founder of this religion was Martin Luther (McHugh, John). Martin Luther was born on November 10thRead MoreThe Religions Of Christianity And Judaism1934 Words   |  8 Pagesphilosophy is kindness. Religion shouldn t be a complicated topic. Religion requires the adherent to use their brain and heart as if it was their place of worship. The adherent s actions take place in the brain; their actions would be part of the worship. Religion is often associated with philosophy, which is unnecessary. Religion is not complicated. The adherent of Christianity or Judaism should have the mindset of kindness and nothing else. Although the religions of Christianity and Judaism are similarRead MoreThe Definition Of Christianity Is A Religion1391 Words   |  6 Pages The definition of Christianity is a religion that teaches about who Jesus is and why he was sent to save us. I believe being a Christian consists of loving inward, outward and upward. I as that I never knew who God was growing up, but I always knew he existed. I am a courageous Christian woman that has been a Christian for almost three years now. I know now what it is like to live for God’s glory. Before I became a Christian I was a very lost soul. What I mean by this is, I lived a very hatefulRead MoreChristianity And Islam : The Religions1510 Words   |  7 PagesChristianity and Islam are the two largest religions in the world. Christianity is a belief built on the life, teachings and death and rebirth of Jesus. He was born as a Jew in Roman-Occupied Palestine (Fisher, pg. 302). Christians believe Jesus was born in Bethlehem. (Fisher pg. 305) According to the Gospel Jesus mother is virgin Mary and she conceived him by the Holy Spirt (fisher, pg. 306). Jesus taught the w ord of God and he also performed some miracles such as turning water into wine, healing

Theories free essay sample

Section A a) What are the principle functions of communication? You should answer with references to communication in at least two different contexts. There are two competing theories regarding what the principle functions of communication are. The first views communication as a process through which information is transmitted and is known as the process theory, whereas the semiotic approach perceives communication as the generation and sharing of meaning. To put this in context, if a friend tells us they are depressed, from the viewpoint of the process school we are solely being informed that they are depressed and that was the sole function behind the act of communication. Semiologists would assert that the message could be polysemic i. e. have more than one meaning and they could be telling us they crave emotional attention or are after help or advice. However, it is generally accepted that communication can be defined as the passing of ideas, information and attitude from person to person and in this sense, the function of communication can be seen as both social and essential; it is at the heart of our lives (Beck) because it is fundamental to the advancement and continuation of the human race. We will write a custom essay sample on Theories or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page One important function of communication is to fulfill social needs such as affection, inclusion and control. These are needs that must be filled, and only communication with others can satisfy that need. Anthropologist Walter Goldschmidt terms the communication drive as the human career because we are endlessly seeking meaning and acceptance from others. The importance of communication has been recognised globally with the charity UNICEF going as far as stating that the denial of communication is the most violent form of torture. We acquire values, roles and norms through our upbringing and institutions such as the mass media and are socialized to accept how things are in the world. Marxists believe that it is through socialisation that we are controlled and manipulated into a false class consciousness and the power of control through communication is emphasized. A second function of communication is to portray and maintain our identities; it helps humans to define who they are and it is how we communicate with others that helps us uncover the limitations of our identity. When we express our attitudes towards people or things we are showing our identities, for instance if we are being honest or sarcastic this shows others what kind of people we are. Halliday has put forward seven principle functions which shows the complexity of communication as an area of study. These functions are: †¢ Instrumental this is a directive function which covers instuctional tasks such as asking someone to pass something to us to get things done. Communication becomes necessary to accomplish daily tasks. †¢ Regulatory regulating the behaviour of others, through this function we can give advice or warnings which are vital for the progression of the human race. For example, if we watched the news and there was a weather warning, if we heeded the warning it may save our lives. †¢ Interactional through social interaction we can maintain relationships, either for phatic or social reasons. Jakobson calls this the conative function the receivers response is prompted to the act of communication and participation is encouraged. †¢ Personal this is an expressive function where the creator of the message focuses on themselves. This allows self disclosure; we can tell others about our thoughts or to express our identity and are able to persuade or motivate others to share our views. †¢ Heuristic to gain knowledge and learn about our environment, we gain information and an education through this function. †¢ Imaginative – through this function which is focused on forms we are able to create an imaginary environment using poetry and stories †¢ Representational – we use this function to convey facts and information using language. Jakobson (1962) argues that all functions of communication are co-existent with one of six elements of communication and one is always dominant which changes the act of communication. He assembles these elements in a linear model corresponding to their principal function: Elements Functions In terms of the two approaches (semiotic and process) Jakobson offers both meaning and structure in his model which makes it balanced and therefore useful in identifying the functions of communication.

African Women under Slavery free essay sample

This paper discusses the experiences of African American Women under slavery during the Slave Trade, their exploitation, the secrecy, the variety of tasks and positions of slave women, slave and ex-slave narratives. Also, this paper presents the hardships African American women faced and the challenges they overcame to become equal with men in today’s society. Slavery was a destructive experience for African Americans especially women. Black women suffered doubly during the slave era. Slave Trade The West African Slave Trade was a global event that focused on West Africa. It was the sale and ownership of another human being that was put into slavery. It was a type of â€Å"forced Migration† that lasted 300 years. From around 1551 thru 1850 about 15 million people were brought into the slave trade it is said that roughly 5 million people did not survive, and may have immediately died before making through the shock of enslavement. About 10 million people in the western hemisphere survived and were sold on the auction block. We will write a custom essay sample on African Women under Slavery or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Generations continued into slavery, the offspring was also brought into slavery. The owners liked the idea of their slaves reproducing. This meant their work force would grow without having to spend much money on slaves. About 250 million lived in slavery throughout the 300 years. Slavery was also a traditional part of African society, various states and kingdoms in Africa operated one or more of the following: chattel slavery, debt bondage, forced labor, and serfdom. Ghana, Mali, Songhai were kingdoms that had large economies and supported large populations, they had knowledge of agriculture, and grew many different crops that sustained many people. Because of the West African Slave Trade, These kingdoms were affected by greed and would often go to war and capture prisoners to sell into slavery. The Middle Passage was the journey of slave trading ships from the west coast of Africa, where the slaves were obtained, across the Atlantic, where they were sold or, in some cases, traded for goods such as molasses, which was used in the making of rum. However, this voyage has come to be remembered for much more than simply the transport and sale of slaves. The Middle Passage was the longest, hardest, most dangerous, and also most horrific part of the journey of the slave ships. With extremely tightly packed loads of human cargo that stank and carried both infectious disease and death, the ships would travel east to west across the Atlantic on a miserable voyage lasting at least five weeks, and sometimes as long as three months. Although incredibly profitable for both its participants and their investing backers, the terrible Middle Passage has come to represent the ultimate in human misery and suffering. The abominable and inhuman conditions which the Africans were faced with on their voyage clearly display the great evil of the slave trade. While there was slavery throughout World History, never has it reached such an epic proportion as during the Middle Passage/ transatlantic slave trade. At this time, no one knows exactly how many Africans died at sea during the Middle Passage experience. Estimates for the total number of Africans lost to the slave trade range from 25 to 50 million. The Middle Passage was a term used to describe the triangular route of trade that brought Africans to the Americas and rum and sugar cane to Europe. It was synonymous with pain and suffering. The journey from Africa to the Americas would take as many as 30 to 90 days. Many of the ships were called â€Å"loose packers† which meant that the slaves were not overlapping each other or â€Å"tight packers†, describing the capacity of the slave ship. The smell of rotten bodies thrown overboard lured sharks to the ships route; European countries participating in the slave trade accumulated tremendous wealth and global power from the capturing and selling of Africans into slavery. Originally, slaves were sold to the Portuguese and Spanish colonies in South and Central Americas to work on sugar cane plantations. The middle passage was the worst thing that could happen to African American slaves. For most women who endured it, the experience of the Slave Trade was one of being outnumbered by men. Roughly one African woman was carried across the Atlantic for every two men. The captains of slave ships were usually instructed to buy as high a proportion of men as they could, because men could be sold for more in the Americas. Women thus arrived in the American colonies as a minority. For some reason, women did not stay a minority. Slave records found that most plantations, even during the period of the slave trade, there were relatively equal numbers of men and women. Slaveholders showed little interest in women as mothers. Their willingness to pay more for men than women, despite the fact than children born to enslaved women would also be the slave-owners’ property and would thus increase their wealth. Women who did have children, always struggled with the impossible conflict between, their own physical needs and their children’s need for care, not to mention the requirements forced on them by plantation work regimes. Women’s inability to maintain the pace of work required by plantation owners during pregnancy, their need for recovery time after childbirth, and the needs of their young children to be fed, cleaned, loved, and integrated spiritually and socially into the human community, all brought them into conflict with the demands of the owners and managers of the plantations on which they worked1. Exploitation The slave owner’s exploitation of the African woman’s sexuality was one of the most significant factors differentiating the experience of slavery for males and females. The white man’s claim to the slave body, male as well as female, was inherent in the concept of the Slave Trade and was tangibly realized perhaps nowhere more than the auction block. Captive Africans were stripped of their clothing, oiled down, and poked and prodded by potential buyers. The erotic undertones of such scenes were particularly pronounced in the case of black women. Throughout the period of slavery in America, white society believed black women to be innately lustful beings. The perception of the African woman as hyper-sexual made her both the object of white man’s disgust and his fantasy. Within the bounds of slavery, masters often felt it was their right to engage in sexual activity with black women. Sometimes, female slaves made advances hoping that such relationships would increase the chances that they or their children would be liberated by the master; most of the time, slave owners took slaves by force. For the most part, masters made young, single slaves the objects of their sexual pursuits. They did on occasion rape married women. The inability of the slave husband to protect his wife from such violation points to another fundamental aspect of the relationship between enslaved men and women. The restrictions of slave law and circumstances of slave life created a sense of parity between black wives and husbands. A master’s control over both spouses reduced the black male’s potential for dominance over his wife. Whenever possible, black slave women manipulated their unique circumstances in the struggle for their personal dignity and that of their families. Black women rebelled against the inhumanities of slave owners. Like their ancestors and counterparts in Africa, most slave women took their motherhood seriously. They put their responsibilities before their own safety and freedom, provided for children not their own, and gave love even to those babies born from violence2. Secrecy Due to the sexual escapades of the white slave owners, both white and African American women had to keep births on the plantation a secret. A female slave was never able to say who the father of her child was. In some of the books on slave records, the father of the slave child would not be recorded because the child would have the status of the mother, regardless. If the female slave ever tried to tell who the father of her child was, she could be sent to jail, beaten, sold to another owner, or killed as a result. If a mistress knew that her husband was cheating on her, there was not very much that she could do. In some cases, the white women would make the slave woman work harder, be very rude to her, or even ask her husband to beat her3. Traditions With many diverse women coming from various places in Africa the daily living, clothing, religion and vast personal mile stones like circumcision, birth, and even marriage are handled differently. Beginning from a child where you grow determines the traditions you inherit. Children in rural Africa communities were all seen as sons and daughters of the entire community. After being sold as slaves many families were torn apart, which mean people had to carry this tradition along because there actually family were gone. On plantations every adult was respected as one’s mother or father. Older women and men stood cherished for the fact they were the wisest to the way to survive. One day a week the slave families would be allowed to gather for a type of religious gathering where they were only allowed to praise whomever they worshiped for an hour of the day. Polygamy was also practiced by many of the slaves, either men had many wives or vice versa. This was brought over to the plantations, as it was also practiced in the homeland. Variety of Tasks and Positions of Slave Women African American women were responsible for a lot of tasks that had to be done inside of the slave owners household or fields. Enslaved women were charged with a different variety of tasks such as cooking, cleaning, laundry, running errands, going to the market, plantation work, looking after children, etc. 4. Slavery taught women to be self-reliant, whereas white women were dependent socially and economically on men. On plantations, men and women did equally difficult work as stated before but often they did the same jobs. Not all labor by women was traditionally women’s work, though men did not usually perform tasks traditionally done by women. Women worked in the fields alongside the men, but most of the hard labor was performed by the men or women past childbearing age. Pregnant women and nursing mothers were often given lighter work. Several positions were open to female slaves that were considered skill labor and so quite respected by the slave community. One of these was the cook, who prepared food for the master’s household and for the slaves themselves when they came back from the fields. The other one is sewing. Some women, who knew how, were responsible for sewing the clothes for the entire community and if they were quite excellent, for the master’s family, too. The skill of midwifery was strictly for female slaves, and like cooking and sewing was considered a highly skilled labor. Learned from the mother or another relative (aunt), a midwife catered to blacks and whites alike, and continues to be a prominent job among African American women. Many times, slave women were looked up to for leadership because of their occupation, their age, or their number of children, and the fact that the work done by the majority of the women was done in groups. The existence of skills was respected labor strictly for women, and the control of child and medical care by women points to the idea that black females were able to order their own community among women5. Female Slave and Ex-Slave Narratives There were quite a few female slave and ex-slave narratives written during the slave era. As historical documents, slave narratives chronicle the evolution of white supremacy in the South from eighteenth-century slavery through early twentieth-century segregation. Most of these autobiographies as narratives give voice to generations of black people who, despite written off by white southern literature, still found a way to donate a literary legacy of enormous collective significance to the South and the United States. The narratives portrays slavery as a condition of extreme physical, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual deprivation, a kind of hell on earth which precipitated the slave’s decision to escape is some sort of personal crisis, such as the sale of a loved one or a dark night of the soul in which hope contends with despair for the spirit of the slave. Impelled by faith in God and a commitment to liberty and human dignity comparable (the slave narratives often stresses) to that of America’s Founding Fathers, the slave undertakes a difficult quest for freedom that climaxes in his or her arrival in the North. The attainment of freedom is signaled not simply by reaching the Free states, but by renaming oneself and dedicating one’s future to antislavery activism6. Additionally, slave and ex-slave narratives stressed how African Americans survived slavery, making a way out of no way, often times resisting exploitation, occasionally fighting back and escaping in search of a better prospects elsewhere in the North. The most memorable of these narratives evoke the national myth of the American individual’s quest for freedom and for a society based on â€Å"life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. † Slave and ex-slave narratives are important not only for what they tell us about African American history and literature, but also because they reveal the complexities of the dialogue between whites and blacks in America, particularly African Americans. Several women come to mind when slave and ex-slave narratives is talked about. The first being, Phyllis Wheatley, she became the first African-American woman author to publish a book of Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral. Another one being Lucy Terry, although her poems was not published until after her death, â€Å"Bar Fights† was the first poem composed by another African American woman. Her poems recalls the popular captivity narrative of the colonial period, in which she recounts her experience in captivity among the Indians, and establishes early on the central role of African American women in American literary history. Also, Harriet Jacobs cannot be forgotten. She published â€Å"Harriet Jacobs’ Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl†, which is an account of her brutal life and thrilling escape. She describes spending seven years of her life hiding in a crawl space – nine feet long, seven feet wide, and three feet long in her narrative. Two of the most iconic women during the slavery period was Sojourner Truth and Harriet Tubman. Sojourner Truth is now like a nearly mythical figure who was a strong proponent of equal rights for both African Americans and women, never compromising her struggle for one to gain the other. She was the first to attend the First National Women’s Rights Convention in 1850, where she was the only black woman to be a speaker. Not only was Sojourner Truth a highly visible symbol of abolition on the speaking platform, so was Harriet Tubman. Harriet was a powerful underground force of liberation. She became the most active conductor on the Underground Railroad, returning 19 times and helping 300 slaves escape through the North to Canada7. There are so many more great women such as Frances Harper, Ida Wells-Barnett, Mary Church Terrell, and Anna Cooper that made significant contributions to African American women history. These women paved the way for other great women like Zora Hurston, Gwendolyn Brooks, Jo Ann Robinson, Rosa Parks, Maya Angelou, Alice Walker, and Toni Morrison to make their mark in history. Significant Contributions Based on the research and reading, we can agree that women during the slave era made significant contributions that led to monumental changes in equal rights for women. Women have always played second behind the man which makes it hard to feel equal. Women slaves were the central nucleus that kept families together. The information presented shows that a lot of the families were solely raised by the woman. Black women learned to cope with the problems of raising children without men. Also, because of the experiences of women under slavery, they opened doors for women to have better pay, jobs, and the most important one, being able to vote. Women have made tremendous strides during the abolition era, the feminist era that reemerged in the sixties as a result of the male chauvinism within the Civil Rights, Black Power, and student movements that traces directly back to women under slavery. This courageous history should inspire every woman today, reflecting back on what our ancestors had to fight for, for us to enjoy the liberties we take for granted. In conclusion, this paper discussed the experiences of African American Women under slavery during the Slave Trade, their exploitation, the secrecy, the variety of tasks and positions of slave women, slave and ex-slave narratives; also, this paper discussed the hardships African American women faced and the challenges they overcame to become equal with men in today’s society. What must not be forgotten, is that African American women never stopped fighting against racial prejudices and sexual abuses. We will never know the exact number of slave women who were raped, but their testimonies make us think that almost all of them had been raped. Most importantly, the most efficient method women developed was to speak out about their experiences in order to make people discover this hidden part of American history, and they surely did.